The other important philosophical group at the time was the Cynics. Only by living thus, and not setting too high a value on things which can at any moment be taken away from him, can he discover that true, unshakeable peace and contentment to which ambition, luxury and above all avarice are among the greatest obstacles.' (4) Cynics and Stoics It is man's duty to live in conformity with the divine will, and this means, firstly, bringing his life into line with 'nature's laws', and secondly, resigning himself completely and uncomplainingly to whatever fate may send him. (3)Īccording to Robin Campbell: 'The Stoics saw the world as a single great community in which all men are brothers, ruled by a supreme providence which could be spoken of, almost according to choice or context, under a variety of names or descriptions including the divine reason, creative reason, nature, the spirit or purpose of the universe, destiny, a personal god, even (by way of concession to traditional religion) 'the gods'. For example, Socrates said: 'I spend all my time going about trying to persuade you, young and old, to make your first and chief concern not for your bodies nor for your possessions, but for the highest welfare of your souls, proclaiming as I go, wealth does not bring goodness, but goodness brings wealth and every other blessing, both to the individual and to the state.' He added that Athenians should be 'ashamed that you give your attention to acquiring as much money as possible, and similarly with reputation and honour, and give no attention or thought to truth and understanding and the perfection of your soul'. Stoicism is predominantly a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, and was greatly influenced by the teachings of Socrates. Seneca's teachers included Stoics such as Attalus, Sotion and Papirius Fabianus.

According to his biographer, Tobias Reinhardt: 'Seneca had a series of teachers in philosophy whom he later credited with having a formative influence on him, notably, they exposed him not just to Stoic moral doctrine, but to a wide range of other intellectual influences, and this breadth of outlook is reflected in Seneca's works.' (2) On one occasion he wrote that the only thing which held him back from committing suicide was his 'father's inability to bear the loss.' (1)

Seneca suffered severely from ill health, including asthma and tuberculosis. His father was an imperial procurator, who became an authority on rhetoric, the art of public speaking. Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the son of Seneca the Elder, was born in Corduba in Hspania in about 2 BC.

Seneca the younger works